2025 INSC 1304

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 1 of 28

REPORTABLE

IN THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA

CRIMINAL APPELLATE JURISDICTION

CRIMINAL APPEAL NO. 1013 OF 2021

R. RAJENDRAN ….APPELLANT(S)

VERSUS

KAMAR NISHA AND OTHERS ….RESPONDENT(S)

J U D G M E N T

PRASHANT KUMAR MISHRA, J.

1) This Appeal calls in question the impugned judgment dated

10.05.2017 passed by High Court of Madras at Madurai in Writ Appeal (MD)

No.521 of 2017, whereby the High Court directed the appellant to appear

before the Dean, Government Rajaji Hospital, Madurai on or before

19.05.2017, for collection of blood samples for DNA profiling as ordered by

the learned Single Judge in W.P. (MD) No.15208 of 2016.

FACTUAL MATRIX

2) Respondent No.1 married one Abdul Latheef in the year 2001. Abdul

Latheef was suffering from a skin ailment and, therefore, he approached the

appellant, a doctor, for treatment. The appellant successfully treated Abdul

Latheef’s condition, which led him to confide in the appellant regarding his

lack of progeny. Abdul Latheef requested the appellant to refer his wife,

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 2 of 28

respondent No.1, to Dr. Indira, the appellant’s first wife and a

Gynaecologist, for the necessary treatment. However, instead of referring

respondent No.1 to Dr. Indira, the appellant developed physical relations

with her, resulting in the birth of a child on 08.03.2007.

3) When the child was approximately one and a half years old, the

appellant continued his extramarital relationship with respondent No.1.

Upon learning this, Abdul Latheef allegedly deserted her. Respondent No.1

then approached the appellant for assistance, as her husband had deserted

her. The appellant asked respondent No.1 to pay Rs.3 ,00,000/- to his

second wife, Dr. Devi, in return for taking her house on lease. Respondent

No.1 complied, taking the house at Door No.1, Thanjavur Road, Pattukkottai

Taluk, Pattukkottai, on lease from 20.08.2013.

4) According to respondent No.1, the appellant frequently visited her

house and spent time with her. She subsequently asked him to marry her

and make their relationship public. Upon his refusal, a quarrel ensued on

09.05.2014. Thereafter, the appellant began avoiding her. Unable to sustain

herself, respondent No.1 approached “Z” Tamil T.V. channel and appeared

on a programme titled “Solvathellam Unmai”, publicly narrating her

complaint. This led to the registration of F .I.R. No.233/2014 dated

24.06.2014 against the appellant for offences under Sections 417 and 420 of

the Indian Penal Code, 1860 and Section 4(1) of the Tamil Nadu Women

Harassment Act.

5) Subsequent to the registration of the FIR, the Police moved an

application before the Judicial Magistrate, Pattukkottai, seeking directions

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 3 of 28

to send the appellant, respondent No.1, and the child for DNA profiling.

Directions were issued to the appellant to appear before the concerned

Medical Officer of the Government Hospital for drawal of blood samples.

However, the appellant failed to comply with the said order.

FIRST ROUND OF LITIGATION

6) Respondent No.1, aggrieved by the lack of progress in the

investigation, filed W.P. (MD) No.7746 of 2015 seeking transfer of F.I.R. in

Crime No.233 of 2014 from respondent No.4/The Inspector of Police,

Pattukottai Police Station, Pattukottai, Thanjavur District to the

Superintendent of Police, C.B.C.I.D., Chennai. The learned Single Judge

vide order dated 08.06.2015 disposed of the writ petition directing

respondent No.3/Superintendent of Police, Thanjavur District to transfer the

pending investigation to any other investigation officer, while directing him

to monitor and supervise the investigation.

7) Respondent No.1, finding no appreciable advancement in the

investigation despite the judicial intervention, was constrained to prefer

another writ petition being W.P. (MD) No.15208 of 2016 seeking transfer of

investigation from respondent no.4/The Inspector of Police to the

Superintendent of Police, C.B.C.I.D, Chennai. She further sought an interim

relief for conducting a DNA test of her child, allegedly born through the

appellant. The High Court, vide interim order dated 20.10.2016, directed the

appellant and respondent No.1 to appear before the Dean, Thanjavur

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 4 of 28

Medical College Hospital, Thanjavur on 01.11.2016, who in turn was

directed to collect blood samples of the parties to obtain a DNA report.

8) Aggrieved by the aforesaid interim order dated 20.10.2016 passed by

the learned Single Judge, the appellant filed W.A. (MD) No.1428 of 2016.

The Division Bench of the High Court, upon consideration, allowed the said

writ appeal, noting that the interim order was passed without affording an

opportunity to the appellant. The High Court set aside the order dated

20.10.2016 and remitted the matter back to the Writ Court for fresh

consideration.

SECOND ROUND OF LITIGATION

9) Pursuant to the remand by the Division Bench, the learned Single

Judge considered the matter afresh, after affording an opportunity to the

appellant, and vide order dated 24.04.2017 in W.P. (MD) No.15208 of 2016,

held that DNA profiling of the appellant, respondent No.1 and the child, was

essential for the investigation in Crime No.233 of 2014. Accordingly, the

learned Single Judge directed respondent No.6/Inspector of Police,

Sethubavachathiram Police Station, Thanjavur District, to produce the

appellant, respondent No.1 and the child before the Dean, Rajaji

Government Hospital, Madurai on 10.05.2017 at 10:30 a.m. The Inspector

of Police was further directed to collect the F.T.A cards from the Forensic

Science Department and submit the same to the Dean, Thanjavur Medical

College Hospital on 10.05.2017, whereupon the blood samples of all the

three parties were to be collected and forwarded to the Tamil Nadu Forensic

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 5 of 28

Laboratory. The DNA report was directed to be sent to the learned Judicial

Magistrate, Pattukottai. The learned Single Judge disposed of the said writ

petition observing that the investigation in Crime No.233 of 2014 would

depend upon the result of the DNA test.

10) Aggrieved by the order passed by the learned Single Judge dated

24.04.2017 in W.P. (MD) No.15208/2016, the appellant preferred Writ

Appeal (MD) No.521 of 2017 . The Division Bench, vide the impugned

judgment dated 10.05.2017 dismissed the writ appeal, directing the

appellant to appear before the Dean, Government Rajaji Hospital, Madurai

on or before 19.05.2017 for collection of blood samples as ordered by the

learned Single Judge. Hence, this Appeal.

SUBMISSIONS

11) Learned counsel for the appellant submitted that it is settled law that

DNA testing can be granted only in exceptiona l cases and it cannot be

permitted for mere roving and fishing inquiries, particularly when such

directions may have implications on the right to privacy of the individuals

involved.

12) He further contended that Section 112 of the Indian Evidence Act,

1872

1

mandates that any person born during the subsistence of a valid

marriage between his mother and father shall be conclusively presumed to

be the legitimate child born out of the wedlock.

1

For short, ‘the Evidence Act’

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 6 of 28

13) Learned counsel also placed reliance on Ivan Rathinam vs. Milan

Joseph

2

; Aparna Ajinkya Firodia v s. Ajinkya Arun Firodia

3

; and

Banarsi Dass vs. Teeku Dutta (Mrs) and Another

4

.

14) He further submitted that the child has now attained the age of

majority, and therefore, the question arises as to whether she can be

compelled to undergo DNA testing without her prior consent. He also drew

our attention to the belated registration of the complaint, submitting that

the child was born on 08.03.2007 and the FIR came to be lodged only on

24.06.2014 without an explanation for such delay.

15) Lastly, he placed reliance on the birth certificate, the school

certificate, and the school admission certificate, all of which record the name

of Abdul Latheef as the father and thus contended that there exists no

eminent need for directing DNA testing. Accordingly, he prayed for setting

aside of the impugned order.

16) Per contra, learned counsel for respondent No.1 submitted that the

reliance placed by the appellant on Goutam Kundu v s. State of West

Bengal and Another

5

and Dipanwita Roy vs. Ronobroto Roy

6

and

similar decisions is misplaced. It was contended that those cases arose in

the context of matrimonial disputes, where the Court’s primary endeavour is

to preserve the institution of marriage and protect the legitimacy of children.

2

2025 SCC OnLine SC 175

3

2023 INSC 146: [2023] 4 SCR 680

4

(2005) 4 SCC 449

5

(1993) 3 SCC 418

6

(2015) 1 SCC 365

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 7 of 28

In contrast, the present case arises out of criminal proceedings, where strict

proof is essential for establishing the guilt or innocence.

17) It was further submitted that where the woman herself seeks DNA

test, there is no element of imputing unchastity. As regards to the

apprehension of illegitimization of the child, it is stated that the child’s

present status is akin to that.

18) Respondent No.1 further relied upon Nandlal Wasudeo Badwaik v s.

Lata Nandlal Badwaik and Another

7

to submit that scientific

advancement prevails over archaic presumptions.

19) It was also contended that this Court may draw adverse inference

under Section 114(g) and (h) of the Evidence Act against the appellant for

his refusal to undergo DNA testing. In this regard, strong reliance was

placed on Dipanwita Roy (supra).

20) On the aspect of privacy, it was argued that the right to privacy,

though constitutionally protected, can be waived by the individual

concerned. Where the person voluntarily seeks the test, plea of privacy

cannot be invoked. Reference was made to K.S. Puttaswamy (Retired) and

Another (AADHAAR) vs. Union of India and Another

8

, to submit that once

a person consents, the right stands validly waived, and no breach arises

from a judicial order directing such examination.

7

(2014) 2 SCC 576

8

(2019) 1 SCC 1

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 8 of 28

QUESTION FOR CONSIDERATION

21) Having heard the learned counsel appearing for both the parties, the

question which arises for our consideration is — whether the High Court

was justified in directing the appellant to undergo DNA testing.

ANALYSIS

I. THE STATUTORY FRAMEWORK: SECTION 112 OF THE EVIDENCE

ACT

22) This dispute arises from a complaint registered under Sections 417

and 420 of the IPC and Section 4(1) of the Tamil Nadu Women Harassment

Act. Respondent No.1 seeks to establish the charges of cheating and

harassment by demonstrating that the appellant is the biological father of

her child. Consequently, before examining whether a direction for DNA

profiling is legally sustainable, it is necessary to evaluate the statutory

framework governing the presumption of legitimacy of a child born during

the continuance of valid marriage, as enshrined under Section 112 of the

Evidence Act. For ease of reference, Section 112 is reproduced below:

“112. Birth during marriage, conclusive proof of

legitimacy.–– The fact that any person was born during

the continuance of a valid marriage between his mother

and any man, or within two hundred and eighty days

after its dissolution, the mother remaining unmarried,

shall be conclusive proof that he is the legitimate son of

that man, unless it can be shown that the parties to the

marriage had no access to each other at any time when

he could have been begotten.”

(emphasis supplied)

23) It is evident from the statutory language of the provision, that it

establishes a conclusive presumption in favour of legitimacy of a child born

during the subsistence of a valid marriage. Embedded in this presumption is

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 9 of 28

the legal recognition that the husband is deemed to be the father of the child

born to his wife. This presumption also operates as a safeguard against

unwarranted intrusion into the legally protected status of legitimacy,

thereby ensuring stability in familial relationships and the protection of

child’s legal and social identity.

24) The presumption under Section 112 of the Evidence Act operates as

“Conclusive Proof” of the legitimacy of a child born during the subsistence of

a valid marriage, by presuming that the parents had access to each other at

the relevant time. Section 4 of the Evidence Act defines “conclusive proof ”

as follows:

“Conclusive proof”.––When one fact is declared by

this Act to be conclusive proof of another, the Court

shall, on proof of the one fact, regard the other as

proved, and shall not allow evidence to be given for

the purpose of disproving it.”

This presumption endures unless it is affirmatively established, by strong

and unambiguous evidence, that the parties to the marriage had no access

to each other at any time when the child could have been begotten, or

following the dissolution of the marriage while the mother remains

unmarried. Since the law favours legitimacy and frowns upon the

illegitimacy, the burden is cast upon the person who asserts “illegitimacy” to

displace the presumption.

25) “Access” or “non-access” under Section 112 of the Evidence Act must

be understood in a very narrow and specific sense, referring to possibility of

sexual relations between the spouses. Non-access denotes the impossibility,

not merely the absence or lack of such opportunity. Even where

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 10 of 28

cohabitation exists, non-access may arise due to impotency, serious illness,

physical incapacity or absence during the relevant period. Conversely, the

lack of cohabitation alone does not establish non-access, nor does the

existence of extramarital relations, separate residences, or non -

communication.

26) Allegations of multiple or simultaneous access by third parties do not

negate the access between the spouses or establish non-access. Likewise,

infidelity on the wife’s part does not, by itself, displace the presumption of

legitimacy if the husband had access. The focus remains on the child’s

birth, while the time of conception is relevant only to determine whether

access between the spouses existed.

II. PRINCIPLES GOVERNING DNA PROFILING

27) The next aspect of the matter that requires consideration is whether

the appellant can be subjected to DNA profiling to determine whether he is

the biological father of the child born to respondent No.1. It becomes

imperative for this Court to examine the legal framework governing the DNA

testing and its permissible scope, particularly in light of presumption in

favour of legitimacy enshrined under Section 112 of the Evidence Act.

28) This Court has consistently held that DNA testing cannot be ordered

as a matter of course and must be subject to stringent safeguards to protect

the dignity of individuals and the legitimacy of children born during the

wedlock. The power to direct such tests must be exercised with utmost

circumspection and only when the interests of justice imperatively demand

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 11 of 28

such an intrusive procedure. Courts must remain vigilant against fishing

inquiries masquerading as legitimate requests for scientific evidence,

ensuring the sanctity of family relationships is not compromised by

speculative or exploratory investigations.

29) The foundational parameters governing such directions were

established in Goutam Kundu (supra) wherein this Court laid down the

following parameters :

“26. From the above discussion it emerges—

(1) that courts in India cannot order blood test as a

matter of course;

(2) wherever applications are made for such prayers in

order to have roving inquiry, the prayer for blood test

cannot be entertained.

(3) There must be a strong prima facie case in that the

husband must establish non-access in order to dispel

the presumption arising under Section 112 of the

Evidence Act.

(4) The court must carefully examine as to what would

be the consequence of ordering the blood test; whether

it will have the effect of branding a child as a bastard

and the mother as an unchaste woman.

(5) No one can be compelled to give sample of blood for

analysis.”

30) Following the principles laid down in Goutam Kundu (supra), the

approach to ordering DNA tests has been further refined in subsequent

decisions. In Sharda vs. Dharmpal

9

it was observed:

“81. To sum up, our conclusions are:

1. A matrimonial court has the power to order a

person to undergo medical test.

9

(2003) 4 SCC 493

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 12 of 28

2. Passing of such an order by the court would not be

in violation of the right to personal liberty under

Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.

3. However, the court should exercise such a power if

the applicant has a strong prima facie case and there

is sufficient material before the court. If despite the

order of the court, the respondent refuses to submit

himself to medical examination, the court will be

entitled to draw an adverse inference against him.”

31) This Court in the case of Bhabani Prasad Jena v s. Convenor

Secretary, Orissa State Commission for Women and Another

10

held

thus:

“21. In a matter where paternity of a child is in issue

before the Court, the use of DNA test is an extremely

delicate and sensitive aspect. One view is that when

modern science gives the means of ascertaining the

paternity of a child, there should not be any hesitation to

use those means whenever the occasion requires. The

other view is that the Court must be reluctant in the use

of such scientific advances and tools which result in

invasion of right to privacy of an individual and may not

only be prejudicial to the rights of the parties but may

have devastating effect on the child. Sometimes the result

of such scientific test may bastardise an innocent child

even though his mother and her spouse were living

together during the time of conception.

22. In our view, when there is apparent conflict between

the right to privacy of a person not to submit himself

forcibly to medical examination and duty of the Court to

reach the truth, the Court must exercise its discretion

only after balancing the interests of the parties and on

due consideration whether for a just decision in the

matter, DNA test is eminently needed. DNA test in a

matter relating to paternity of a child should not be

directed by the Court as a matter of course or in a

routine manner, whenever such a request is made. The

Court has to consider diverse aspects including

presumption under Section 112 of the Evidence Act; pros

and cons of such order and the test of “eminent need”

whether it is not possible for the Court to reach the truth

without use of such test.”

10

(2010) 8 SCC 633

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 13 of 28

32) We must now consider whether respondent No.1 has successfully

displaced the presumption of legitimacy under Section 112 of the Evidence

Act by proving non-access, so as to warrant the ordering of a DNA test.

III. REBUTTAL OF PRESUMPTION AND FAILURE TO ESTABLISH NON-

ACCESS

33) In a case where the legitimacy of a child is questioned, the degree of

proof, to rebut the presumption under Section 112 of the Evidence Act, is

extremely crucial. In Kamti Devi (Smt.) and Another vs. Poshi Ram

11

this

Court observed as follows :

“11. Whether the burden on the husband is as hard as

the prosecution to prove the guilt of the accused in a trial

deserves consideration in the above background. The

standard of proof of prosecution to prove the guilt beyond

any reasonable doubt belongs to criminal jurisprudence

whereas the test of preponderance of probabilities

belongs to civil cases. The reason for insisting on proof

beyond reasonable doubt in criminal cases is to guard

against the innocent being convicted and sent to jail if

not to extreme penalty of death. It would be too hard if

that standard is imported in a civil case for a husband to

prove non-access as the very concept of non-access is

negative in nature. But at the same time the test of

preponderance of probability is too light as that might

expose many children to the peril of being illegitimatized.

If a Court declares that the husband is not the father of

his wife's child, without tracing out its real father the

fallout on the child is ruinous apart from all the ignominy

visiting his mother. The bastardised child, when grows

up would be socially ostracised and can easily fall into

wayward life. Hence, by way of abundant caution and as

a matter of public policy, law cannot afford to allow such

consequence befalling an innocent child on the strength

of a mere tilting of probability. Its corollary is that the

burden of the plaintiff husband should be higher than

the standard of preponderance of probabilities. The

standard of proof in such cases must at least be of a

degree in between the two as to ensure that there was no

possibility of the child being conceived through the

plaintiff husband.”

11

(2001) 5 SCC 311

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 14 of 28

34) Thus, it is clear that the standard of proof required to displace the

presumption under Section 112 of the Evidence Act must be higher than

mere preponderance of probabilities, yet need not reach the exacting

criminal standard of proof beyond reasonable doubt. The standard must be

sufficiently rigorous to ensure that there existed no possibility of child being

conceived through the husband. This intermediate threshold serves the twin

objectives of preventing the illegitimization of the child on the strength of

mere assertions or tilting of probabilities, while simultaneously guarding

against weaponization of the statutory presumption to defeat the legitimate

claims. The person seeking to rebut this presumption must, therefore,

adduce strong, cogent and unambiguous evidence establishing non -access,

failing which, the statutory presumption must prevail.

35) In the case at hand, the child was born on 08.03.2007, during the

subsistence of a valid marriage between respondent No.1 and Abdul Latheef,

solemnized in the year 2001. Following the maxim pater est quem nuptiae

demonstrant (The father is the man whom the marriage indicates), the

statutory presumption under Section 112 of the Evidence Act operates in

favour of Abdul Latheef being the legitimate father of the child. As observed

earlier, this presumption can be displaced only by proving non-access

between the spouses. It is the case of respondent No.1 that Abdul Latheef

deserted her sometime in 2008-2009, well after the child had attained the

age of approximately one and half years. No material has been placed on

record by respondent No.1 to substantiate her claim of desertion, which

remains a bare assertion unsupported by any evidence. It is also not the

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 15 of 28

case of respondent No.1 that Abdul Latheef was suffering from any physical

incapacity or impotency rendering him incapable of procreation nor has any

challenge been raised to the validity of the marriage itself. Further,

respondent No.1 has not indicated any circumstance even remotely,

suggesting that Abdul Latheef was physically absent during the relevant

time when the child could have been conceived.

36) The birth certificate dated 14.07.2009, the school transfer certificate

dated 01.06.2011, and the school admission record dated 09.06.2011 each

record the name of Abdul Latheef as the father of the child. These

documents reflect a consistent acknowledgement of his paternity. At its

highest, respondent No.1’s case is one of simultaneous access, that she had

physical relations with the appellant while still married to Abdul Latheef.

Mere simultaneous access does not negate the husband’s access, nor does it

suffice to displace the statutory presumption under S ection 112 of the

Evidence Act.

37) What is most striking, however, is the complete absence of any

specific pleading by respondent No.1 establishing non-access between

herself and Abdul Latheef during the period relevant to the conception of the

child. This omission is not merely procedural but goes to the root of the

matter. The presumption under Section 112 of the Evidence Act operates in

favour of legitimacy, and proof of non-access at the relevant period is the

only mode of rebuttal recognised by law. In absence of specific plea of non-

access, supported by strong and unambiguous evidence, the foundation for

displacing the statutory presumption simply does not exi st. The

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 16 of 28

presumption, therefore, remains unrebutted, and Abdul Latheef must be

regarded as having had access to respondent No.1 during the relevant

period.

38) This Court must nonetheless consider respondent No.1’s prayer for

DNA testing, with due regard to the interests of all stakeholders. As held in

Bhabani Prasad Jena (supra), when there is an apparent conflict between

the right to privacy and bodily integrity on one hand, and the Court’s duty to

ascertain the truth on the other, judicial discretion must be exercised with

utmost care. Such direction can be issued only after a scrupulous balancing

of interests of all parties and upon due consideration of whether, for a just

decision in the matter, DNA test is eminently necessary.

39) At this juncture, it is apposite to refer to the reliance placed by

respondent No.1 on Nandlal Wasudeo Badwaik (supra) and Dipanwita

Roy (supra) to buttress her claim for a direction of DNA testing. These

decisions, however, are clearly distinguishable on facts and do not advance

the case of respondent No.1.

40) In Nandlal Wasudeo Badwaik (supra), the DNA testing had been

conducted with the consent of all parties, and without objection from the

wife’s counsel. The results indicated that the husband was not the biological

father, and the re-test at the wife’s request yielded the same result. The

challenge based on Section 112 of the Evidence Act was only raised after the

test was conducted and the results were already part of the record. The

question before this Court, therefore, was confined to whether such DNA

test results, obtained pursuant to a prior Court direction, could be admitted

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 17 of 28

into evidence to rebut the presumption of legitimacy. This Court held that

where a DNA report is available on record following a Court directed test, it

cannot be disregarded merely because it conflicts with the presumption. The

decision thus dealt with the admissibility of DNA evidence already obtained,

not whether a DNA test may be ordered against an unwilling party at the

first instance.

41) In Dipanwita Roy (supra), this Court directed a DNA test to be

conducted on the child. However, the direction was not issued for the

purpose of determining the legitimacy of the child. The proceedings were in

the context of a petition for divorce on the ground of adultery. The DNA test

was sought to establish the wife’s infidelity in order to obtain a decree of

divorce. The appellant’s objective was not to prove that the child was

illegitimate, that question arose only incidentally. This Court expressly

observed that while the issue of legitimacy was incidentally involved, the

DNA test would determine solely the question of infidelity, and would not

disturb the presumption under Section 112 of the Evidence Act.

42) In sharp contrast, respondent No.1 in the present case seeks a

direction for DNA testing precisely to dislodge the statutory presumption of

legitimacy that safeguards the child, and to establish the appellant as the

biological father so as to sustain the criminal charges of cheating and

harassment. The decision in Dipanwita Roy (supra) is, therefore,

inapplicable to the facts of the present case.

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 18 of 28

IV. THE TWIN BLOCKADES TO DNA TESTING AND THE RIGHT TO

PRIVACY

43) This Court, in Ivan Rathinam (supra), has elucidated the

circumstances under which DNA testing may be directed, while maintaining

the balance between interests of the parties. It reads thus:

“47. First and foremost, the courts must, therefore, consider

the existing evidence to assess the presumption of legitimacy. If

that evidence is insufficient to come to a finding, only then

should the court consider ordering a DNA test. Once the

insufficiency of evidence is established, the court must

consider whether ordering a DNA test is in the best interests of

the parties involved and must ensure that it does not cause

undue harm to the parties. There are thus, two blockades to

ordering a DNA test : (i) insufficiency of evidence; and (ii) a

positive finding regarding the balance of interests.”

44) In the present case, we find no insufficiency of evidence to dislodge

the presumption of legitimacy. The child was born during the subsistence of

a valid marriage and the documents on record consistently record Abdul

Latheef as the father. More crucially, there is no pleading whatsoever by

respondent No.1 alleging non-access between herself and Abdul Latheef

during the period of conception. The existing evidence, therefore, stands

sufficient.

45) At this juncture, this Court has to consider whether directing a DNA

test would serve the best interests of the parties involved or whether it

would occasion undue harm. The balance of interests must account for the

rights and welfare of all the stakeholders—the appellant, the child who has

now attained majority, and respondent No.1 herself. In the present case,

this balance weighs decisively against ordering DNA testing. Such a

direction would constitute a significant intrusion into the privacy and

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 19 of 28

dignity of both, the appellant and the child, implicating the fundamental

right to privacy guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution of India.

46) The contours of the right to privacy, as an intrinsic facet of Article 21

of the Constitution, were elaborated upon b y this Court in K.S.

Puttaswamy and Another vs. Union of India and Others

12

:

“325. Like other rights which form part of the fundamental

freedoms protected by Part III, including the right to life and

personal liberty under Article 21, privacy is not an absolute

right. A law which encroaches upon privacy will have to

withstand the touchstone of permissible restrictions on

fundamental rights. In the context of Article 21 an invasion of

privacy must be justified on the basis of a law which stipulates

a procedure which is fair, just and reasonable. The law must

also be valid with reference to the encroachment on life and

personal liberty under Article 21. An invasion of life or personal

liberty must meet the threefold requirement of (i) legality,

which postulates the existence of law; (ii) need, defined in

terms of a legitimate State aim; and (iii) proportionality which

ensures a rational nexus between the objects and the means

adopted to achieve them.”

Forcefully subjecting an individual to DNA testing constitutes a grave

intrusion upon privacy and personal liberty. Such an encroachment can be

justified only if it satisfies the threefold test of legality, legitimate State aim,

and proportionality.

47) On behalf of respondent No.1, it is contended that she has voluntarily

relinquished her privacy and is willing to subject herself to DNA testing. It

is further asserted that the DNA testing would remove the child’s stigma of

illegitimacy by establishing the true parentage. These contentions cannot

override the legitimate privacy interests of the other parties involved.

Respondent No.1 is not the sole party whose rights are implicated by the

proposed DNA test. The appellant and the child, who has now attained

12

(2017) 10 SCC 1 (Privacy-9J.)

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 20 of 28

majority, possess independent and equally inviolable rights to privacy and

dignity. Respondent No.1’s willingness to waive her own privacy does not

extend to waiving the privacy of others. The appellant has consistently

refused to submit to DNA testing, a refusal that is protected by the

principles articulated in Goutam Kundu (supra).

48) Furthermore, the assertion that the child is living as illegitimate is

legally untenable. In the eyes of the law, the child is the legitimate offspring

of Abdul Latheef through respondent No.1, as the statutory presumption

under Section 112 of the Evidence Act remains unrebutted. The legal status

of the child cannot be altered by mere assertions or by subjective perception

of respondent No.1. Turning to the requirements enunciated in K.S.

Puttaswamy (Privacy-9J.) (supra), we find that the proposed DNA test fails

to satisfy the constitutional requisites. There exists no legitimate aim that

necessitates such an intrusive procedure, since the criminal allegations of

cheating and harassment can be investigated and adjudicated on the

strength of other evidence, without delving into the question of biological

paternity. The test of proportionality is also manifestly not met; the invasion

of privacy and dignity of the appellant and the child far outweigh any

conceivable investigative benefit.

49) In view of the foregoing discussion, this Court is of the opinion that

neither the element of eminent need, contemplated in Bhabani Prasad

Jena (supra), nor the positive finding on the balance of interests as

articulated in Ivan Rathinam (supra), can be said to have been satisfied in

the facts of the present case.

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 21 of 28

V. ADVERSE INFER ENCE

50) Further, this Court deems it necessary to address the contention

advanced by respondent No.1 that an adverse inference ought to be drawn

against the appellant under Section 114(g) and (h) of the Evidence Act, on

account of his refusal to undergo DNA testing. This contention, however, is

fundamentally misconceived. Without first displacing the statutory

presumption of legitimacy under Section 112 of the Evidence Act by leading

positive and cogent evidence of non-access, respondent No.1 cannot seek

refuge in the drawing of an adverse inference against the appellant under

Section 114 of the Evidence Act. Unless the presumption under Section 112

is first rebutted, no occasion arises for directing a DNA test. Conversely,

where the prerequisites for ordering such a test are not satisfied, the

question of drawing any adverse inference from the appellant’s refusal to

undergo it does not arise at all. A similar issue arose for consideration

before this Court in Aparna Ajinkya Firodia (supra) wherein

V. Ramasubramanian, J. in a concurring opinion observed as under:

“26. There is another fallacy in the argument of the

respondent. It is the contention of the respondent that he is

seeking an adverse inference to be drawn only as against the

wife under Section 114(h), upon the refusal of the wife to

subject the child to DNA test. But the stage at which the wife

may refuse to subject the child to DNA, would arise only after

the Court comes to the conclusion that a DNA test should be

ordered. To put in simple terms, there are three stages in the

process, namely, (i) consideration by the Court, of the question

whether to order DNA test or not; (ii) passing an order directing

DNA test, after such consideration; and (iii) the decision of the

wife to comply or not, with the order so passed. The respondent

should first cross the outer fence namely whether a DNA test

can be ordered or not. It is only after he convinces the Court to

order DNA test and successfully secures an order that he can

move to the inner fence, regarding the willingness of the wife to

abide by the order. It is only at that stage that the respondent

can, if at all, seek refuge under Section 114(h).

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 22 of 28

27. But today, we are actually at the outer fence in this case,

adjudicating as to whether DNA test can be ordered at all.

Therefore, the respondent cannot jump to the inner fence by-

passing the outer fence.”

As it is abundantly clear from the foregoing, and the exposition in Aparna

Ajinkya Firodia (supra), no occasion arises to draw an adverse inference at

the stage of considering whether a DNA test ought to be directed.

51) Beyond the legal framework, it is also imperative to recognise the

ethical and psychological dimensions of directing DNA testing. The process

though scientific, is not without profound ethical and emotional

implications. The act of extracting and analysing one’s genetic material

intrudes into the innermost sphere of personal identity, autonomy, and

privacy. It can have lasting emotional and social ramifications not only for

children but also for adults, as such testing often brings to surface intimate

aspects of familial and personal relationships. In the present case, it must

be borne in mind that the child has now attained majority. At the time

when the FIR was registered and the direction for DNA profiling was issued

by the High Court, the child was still a minor. In such circumstances, the

best interests of the child ought to have been a paramount consideration

before any intrusive forensic procedure was contemplated. Judicial and

ethical prudence both require that autonomy, dignity and emotional well-

being of the individual, especially of a minor, be safeguarded. A direction for

DNA testing without considering the ramifications causes risks inflicting an

irreversible psychological and social harm.

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 23 of 28

VI. PATERNITY AS A COLLATERAL FACTOR TO CRIMINAL CHARGES

52) The significance of safeguarding individual autonomy, particularly of

children, in the context of DNA testing, was considered by this Court in

Inayath Ali and Another vs. State of Telangana and Another

13

. In this

case, it was examined whether a Court could direct DNA testing of two

minor children to facilitate the proof of offences under Sections 498A, 323,

354, 506 and 509 of the Indian Penal Code, 1860. The dispute primarily

concerned dowry-related offences, and the paternity of the children was not

directly in issue. The complainant sought DNA testing to establish that the

children were born out of a forced relationship with her brother-in-law.

Rejecting this plea, this Court held as follows:

“7. In the present proceeding, we are taking two factors into

account which have been ignored by the trial Court as also the

Revisional Court. The trial Court allowed the application of

Respondent 2 mechanically, on the premise that the DNA

fingerprint test is permissible under the law. The High Court

has also proceeded on that basis, referring to different

authorities including Dipanwita Roy v. Ronobroto

Roy [Dipanwita Roy v. Ronobroto Roy, (2015) 1 SCC 365 :

(2015) 1 SCC (Civ) 495 : (2015) 1 SCC (Cri) 683] . The ratio of

this case was also examined by the coordinate Bench in the

decision of Ashok Kumar [Ashok Kumar v. Raj Gupta, (2022) 1

SCC 20 : (2022) 1 SCC (Civ) 303] .

8. The first factor, which, in our opinion, is of significance, is

that in the judgment under appeal, blood sampling of the

children was directed, who were not parties to the proceeding

nor was their status required to be examined in the complaint

of Respondent 2. This raised doubt on their legitimacy of being

born to legally wedded parents and such directions, if carried

out, have the potential of exposing them to inheritance related

complication.

9. Section 112 of the Evidence Act, also gives a protective cover

from allegations of this nature. The said provision stipulates:

13

(2024) 7 SCC 822

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 24 of 28

“112. Birth during marriage, conclusive proof

of legitimacy.—The fact that any person was

born during the continuance of a valid

marriage between his mother and any man,

or within two hundred and eighty days after

its dissolution, the mother remaining

unmarried, shall be conclusive proof that he

is the legitimate son of that man, unless it

can be shown that the parties to the marriage

had no access to each other at any time when

he could have been begotten.”

10. In our opinion, the trial Court as also the Revisional Court

had completely ignored the said factor and proceeded as if the

children were material objects who could be sent for forensic

analysis. The other factor, in our opinion, which was ignored

by the said two Courts is that the paternity of the children was

not in question in the subject proceeding.

11. The substance of the complaint was not related to paternity

of the children of Respondent 2 but the question was whether

the offences under the aforesaid provisions of the 1860 Code

were committed against her or not. The paternity of the two

daughters of Respondent 2 is a collateral factor to the

allegations on which the criminal case is otherwise founded.

On the basis of the available materials, in our opinion, the case

out of which this proceeding arises could be decided without

considering the DNA test report. This was the reasoning which

was considered by the coordinate Bench in Ashok

Kumar [Ashok Kumar v. Raj Gupta, (2022) 1 SCC 20 : (2022) 1

SCC (Civ) 303] , though that was a civil suit. Merely because

something is permissible under the law cannot be directed as a

matter of course to be performed particularly when a direction

to that effect would be invasive to the physical autonomy of a

person. The consequence thereof would not be confined to the

question as to whether such an order would result in

testimonial compulsion, but encompasses right to privacy as

well. Such direction would violate the privacy right of the

persons subjected to such tests and could be prejudicial to the

future of the two children who were also sought to be brought

within the ambit of the trial Court's direction.”

53) In the case at hand, the paternity of the child is collateral to the

primary allegations of cheating and harassment. The FIR itself reveals that

the gravamen of the allegations bears no nexus to the paternity of the child.

The child is neither a party to the proceedings nor is the child’s status

required to be ascertained to determine the commission of the offences

alleged. Directing DNA testing in such circumstances would thus be wholly

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 25 of 28

extraneous to the scope of the investigation and disproportionate to the

object sought to be achieved.

54) A direction for DNA testing must have a direct and demonstrable

nexus with the offences under investigation. In the absence of such nexus,

compelling a person to undergo DNA profiling, amounts to unwarranted

intrusion into bodily autonomy and privacy, contrary to the safeguards

implicit in Articles 20(3) and 21 of Constitution of India.

55) Having regard to the above legal position, reliance placed by the High

Court on Sections 53 and 53A of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973

appears to be misplaced. In the present case, the learned Single Judge of

the High Court in the order dated 24.04.2017, invoked these provisions to

justify the direction for DNA testing, observing that there was an eminent

need to ascertain the paternity of the child in order to unearth the truth.

The Division Bench, in the impugned judgment, while affirming the order of

the learned Single Judge, did not independently analyse their scope and

applicability. The said provisions are reproduced for ready reference:

“53. Examination of accused by medical practitioner at the

request of police officer.—(1) When a person is arrested on a

charge of committing an offence of such a nature and alleged to

have been committed under such circumstances that there are

reasonable grounds for believing that an examination of his

person will afford evidence as to the commission of an offence,

it shall be lawful for a registered medical practitioner, acting at

the request of a police officer not below the rank of sub -

inspector, and for any person acting in good faith in his aid

and under his direction, to make such an examination of the

person arrested as is reasonably necessary in order to

ascertain the facts which may afford such evidence, and to use

such force as is reasonably necessary for that purpose.

(2) Whenever the person of a female is to be examined under

this section, the examination shall be made only by, or under

the supervision of, a female registered medical practitioner.

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 26 of 28

Explanation.—In this section and in sections 53A and 54,—

(a) “examination” shall include the examination of blood, blood

stains, semen, swabs in case of sexual offences, sputum and

sweat, hair samples and finger nail clippings by the use of

modern and scientific techniques including DNA profiling and

such other tests which the registered medical practitioner

thinks necessary in a particular case;

(b) “registered medical practitioner” means a medical

practitioner who possesses any medical qualification as defined

in clause (h) of section 2 of the Indian Medical Council Act,

1956 (102 of 1956) and whose name has been entered in a

State Medical Register.

53A. Examination of person accused of rape by medical

practitioner.— (1) When a person is arrested on a charge of

committing an offence of rape or an attempt to commit rape

and there are reasonable grounds for believing that an

examination of his person will afford evidence as to the

commission of such offence, it shall be lawful for a registered

medical practitioner employed in a hospital run by the

Government or by a local authority and in the absence of such

a practitioner within the radius of sixteen kilometres from the

place where the offence has been committed, by any other

registered medical practitioner, acting at the request of a police

officer not below the rank of a sub-inspector, and for any

person acting in good faith in his aid and under his direction,

to make such an examination of the arrested person and to use

such force as is reasonably necessary for that purpose.

(2) The registered medical practitioner conducting such

examination shall, without delay, examine such person and

prepare a report of his examination giving the following

particulars, namely:—

(i) the name and address of the accused and of the

person by whom he was brought,

(ii) the age of the accused,

(iii) marks of injury, if any, on the person of the accused,

(iv) the description of material taken from the person of

the accused for DNA profiling, and

(v) other material particulars in reasonable detail.

(3) The report shall state precisely the reasons for each

conclusion arrived at.

(4) The exact time of commencement and completion of the

examination shall also be noted in the report.

(5) The registered medical practitioner shall, without delay,

forward the report to the investigating officer, who shall

forward it to the Magistrate referred to in section 173 as part of

the documents referred to in clause (a) of sub-section (5) of that

section.”

(emphasis supplied)

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 27 of 28

56) These provisions are intended to be invoked in the cases involving

offences where medical examination of the accused, including the collection

of blood, semen, hair samples, or nail clippings, may furnish material

evidence directly bearing upon the commission of the offence. While these

provisions contemplate the use of modern scientific techniques such as DNA

profiling, their application is conditioned upon the existence of a clear and

proximate nexus between the examination sought and the alleged offence.

57) In the present case, no such nexus is discernible. The offences

alleged do not, by their nature, necessitate ascertainment of paternity or any

forensic determination through DNA analysis. Merely because such testing

is legally permissible in certain contexts does not justify its use as a matter

of course.

CONCLUSION

58) In view of the foregoing analysis, we are constrained to hold that the

impugned judgment dated 10.05.2017 cannot be sustained. The statutory

presumption under Section 112 of the Evidence Act remains unrebutted,

and the child continues to be, in the eyes of the law, the legitimate offspring

of Abdul Latheef. Section 112 embodies a legislative policy of profound

significance, it stands as a bulwark against the casual illegitimization of

children on the strength of unsubstantiated allegations or mere suspicion.

The presumption it creates is not a procedural formality to be lightly

displaced but a substantive safeguard intended to protect the dignity, social

legitimacy, and the legal rights of children born within wedlock.

Criminal Appeal No.1013/2021 Page 28 of 28

59) In summation, the direction for DNA testing, as affirmed by the

Division Bench, rests upon the fundamental misapprehension of both

statutory framework and constitutional safeguards. The offences alleged,

falling under Sections 417 and 420 of the Indian Penal Code, 1860 and

Section 4(1) of the Tamil Nadu Women Harassment Act , are neither of

nature nor of a circumstance that warrant recourse to DNA analysis. The

High Court’s invocation of Sections 53 and 53A of the Code of Criminal

Procedure, 1973, rests on a misconstruction of their contextual ambit; these

provisions contemplate medical examination only where such an

examination may directly yield evidence relating to commission of the

alleged offence. Absent that nexus, compulsion of a DNA test transforms a

lawful investigative power into an intrusive measure devoid of necessity,

trenching upon the individual’s bodily autonomy, privacy. Scientific

procedures, however advanced, cannot be employed as instruments of

speculation; they must be anchored in demonstrable relevance to the charge

and justified by compelling investigative need.

60) Accordingly, the impugned judgment dated 10.05.2017 passed by the

High Court in Writ Appeal (MD) No.521 of 2017 is set aside.

61) The Appeal is, accordingly, allowed.

…………………..........................J.

(PRASHANT KUMAR MISHRA )

.………………............................J.

(VIPUL M. PANCHOLI)

NEW DELHI;

NOVEMBER 10, 2025.